How to tackle challenges in photovoltaic (PV) recycling?

The four key recommendations to tackle challenges in photovoltaic (PV) recycling are as follows: promote design for recycling (DfR); data availability; advance policy; and incentivize upcycling. DfR concepts need to be incorporated in the design phase and can be explored through innovations in the frame, material choices and module lamination 111.

Why do we only focus on c-Si solar modules?

Herein, we only focus on c-Si PV modules because they constitute 95% of the global photovoltaics 4 and the recycling of CdTe solar modules is commercially mature and dominated by a single firm 27.

Can photovoltaic modules be recycled?

Azeumo, M. F. et al. Photovoltaic module recycling, a physical and a chemical recovery process. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cell 193, 314–319 (2019). Briand, A. et al. Versatility assessment of supercritical CO 2 delamination for photovoltaic modules with ethylene-vinyl acetate, polyolefin or ethylene methacrylic acid ionomer as encapsulating polymer.

Are there open challenges to PV recycling?

Open challenges to PV recycling and key recommendations to address these challenges have been discussed in detail. Among the open challenges to widescale adoption of PV recycling, one of the biggest barriers is the low price of recovered materials, which does not justify recycling costs of EOL PV modules compared with landfilling.

How does energy storage affect ship propulsion?

The development of energy storage technologies, particularly lithium batteries, is increasingly impacting ship propulsion (Wang et al., 2022). Electrification is becoming an essential solution for decarbonizing the shipping industry (Ruggiero, 2022; Yang et al., 2024).

How much embodied energy does a solar module carry?

The module also bears high embodied energy (4,662 MJ m –2) to which the purification processes to solar-grade silicon and cell production are the major contributors, accounting for 3,511 MJ m –2 (refs. 17, 18) (Fig. 1b).